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Thin Solid Films, Vol.534, 1-11, 2013
XPS for chemical- and charge-sensitive analyses
By recording X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic binding energy shifts, while subjecting samples to a variety of optical and electrical stimuli, information about charge accumulation on materials or surface structures can be obtained. These stimuli included d.c. as well as a. c. electrical and/or optical pulses covering a wide frequency range (10(-3) to 10(6) Hz) for probing charging and/or photovoltage shifts, stemming from impurities, dopants, defects, etc., whether created intentionally or not. The methodology is simple to implement and provides several new dimensions for thin films and materials analyses. (C) 2013 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved.