Since polyamines have been suggested to be one of the uremic "toxins," the levels of each polyamine, its oxidized product, acrolein. and amine oxidase in plasma of patients with renal failure were investigated. The level of putrescine was increased, whereas the level of spermine was decreased in the plasma of patients with renal failure. The patients also had increased serum amine oxidase activity leading to increased degradation of spermine. Both levels of free and protein-conjugated acrolein were also increased in plasma of patients with renal failure. The accumulated acrolein found as protein conjugates was equivalent to 180 muM, which was 6-fold higher than in plasma of normal subjects. It was found that acrolein is mainly produced by polyamine oxidase in plasma. A cell lysate containing polyamine oxidase was cytotoxic in the presence of spermine. Our results indicate that the level of acrolein is well correlated with the degree of seriousness of chronic renal failure. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.